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File:539956main ISS466.jpg
The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.

"Space is considered an environment — an extreme environment, filled with entities that can be harmful to spacecraft."[1]

"In space, there are several environmental threats that can harm materials used to create spacecraft. These threats include ultraviolet rays and x-rays from the sun; solar wind particle radiation; thermal cycling (hot and cold cycles); space particles (micrometeoroids and debris); and atomic oxygen."[1]

"Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment."[1]

"PECs [Passive Experiment Containers], which are attached to the exterior of the International Space Station, are about 2-feet by 2-feet and hold a variety of materials samples and devices whose reactions in space are of interest."[1]

"The PECs are positioned in either a ram/wake orientation or in a zenith/nadir orientation. The ram orientation is the direction in which the space station is traveling, and the wake orientation faces the direction traveled. The zenith orientation faces away from Earth into space, while the nadir orientation faces straight down to Earth. Each orientation exposes the samples to different space environmental factors."[1]

Bismuth germinates

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Bi
4Ge
3O
12 has a cubic crystal structure (a = 1.0513 nm, z = 4, Pearson symbol cI76, space group I43d No. 220) and a density of 7.12 g/cm3.[2] When irradiated by X-rays or gamma rays it emits photons of wavelengths between 375 and 650 nm, with peak at 480 nm, produces about 8500 photons per megaelectronvolt of the high energy radiation absorbed, has good nuclear hardness (radiation hardness) (parameters remaining stable up to 5.104 grays (Gys)), high scintillation efficiency, good energy resolution between 5 and 20 MeV, is mechanically strong, and is not hygroscopic, melting point is 1050 °C, the most common oxide-based scintillator.[3]

Cadmium tellurides

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Energy gap is a function of cadmium composition. Credit: Jaraalbe.{{free media}}

Cadmium telluride (CdTe) doped with chlorine is used as a radiation detector for [X-rays], gamma rays, beta particles and alpha particles. CdTe can operate at room temperature allowing the construction of compact detectors for a wide variety of applications in nuclear spectroscopy.[4] The properties that make CdTe superior for the realization of high performance gamma- and x-ray detectors are high atomic number, large bandgap and high electron mobility ~1100 cm2/V·s, which result in high intrinsic μτ (mobility-lifetime) product and therefore high degree of charge collection and excellent spectral resolution.

The intrinsic carrier concentration for HgCdTe is given by [5]

where k is Boltzmann's constant, q is the elementary electric charge, t is the material temperature, x is the percentage of cadmium concentration, and Eg is the bandgap given by [6]

HgCdTe Bandgap in electron volts is a function of x composition and temperature. Credit: Chriberg85719.{{free media}}
HgCdTe cutoff wavelength in µm is a function of x composition and temperature. Credit: Chriberg85719.{{free media}}
Relationship between bandgap and cutoff wavelength

Using the relationship , where λ is in µm and Eg. is in electron volts, one can also obtain the cutoff wavelength as a function of x and t:

The Auger 1 minority carrier lifetime for intrinsic (undoped) HgCdTe is given by[7]

where FF is the overlap integral (approximately 0.221).

The Auger 1 minority carrier lifetime for doped HgCdTe is given by [8]

where n is the equilibrium electron concentration.

Cadmium zinc tellurides

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Cadmium zinc telluride, (CdZnTe) or CZT, is an alloy of cadmium telluride and zinc Telluride, a direct bandgap semiconductor, used in a variety of applications, including semiconductor radiation detectors, photorefractive gratings, electro-optic modulators, solar cells, and terahertz generation and detection, with a band gap that varies from approximately 1.4 to 2.2 eV, depending on composition.[4]

CZT radiation detectors advantages include high sensitivity for x-rays and gamma-rays, due to the high atomic numbers of Cd and Te, and better energy resolution than [scintillator detectors.[9]

CZT can be formed into different shapes for different radiation-detecting applications, and a variety of electrode geometries, such as coplanar grids [10] and HEXITEC, small pixel detectors,[11] have been developed to provide unipolar (electron-only) operation, thereby improving energy resolution. A 1 cm³ CZT crystal has a sensitivity range of 30 keV to 3 MeV with a 2.5% full width at half maximum (FWHM) energy resolution at 662 keV.[12]

Gadolinium oxysulfides

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Gadolinium oxysulfide (Gd
2O
2S: Pr, Ce, F powder complex) based ceramics exhibit final densities of 99.7% to 99.99% of the theoretical density (7.32 g/cm3) and an average grain size ranging from 5 micrometers to 50 micrometers in dependence with the fabrication procedure.[13] There are two main disadvantages to this scintillator; one being the hexagonal crystal structure, which emits only optical translucency and low external light collection at the photodiode and the other is the high X-ray damage to the sample.[14]

The Gd
2O
2S structure is a sulfur layer with double layers of gadolinium and oxygen in between.[15]

Terbium-activated gadolinium oxysulfide is frequently used as a scintillator for x-ray imaging that emits wavelengths between 382-622 nm, though the primary emission peak is at 545 nm and is used as a green phosphor in projection cathode ray tubes, though its drawback is marked lowering of efficiency at higher temperatures.[16]

When Gadolinium oxysulfide comes in contact with mineral acids, hydrogen sulfide can be produced.[17]

Lead(II) iodides

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Lead(II) iodide with the formula PbI
2 has a few specialized applications, such as the manufacture of X-ray and gamma ray detectors.[18]

PbI
2 is used as a high-energy photon detector for gamma-rays and X-rays, due to its wide band gap which ensures low noise operation.[19][18][20]

"The µ𝛕 product of [a lead iodide PbI
2] crystal is estimated to be about 1 x 10-6 cm2/V for electrons and about 6 x 10-7 cm2/V for holes. The resistivity of the PbI
2 crystal is estimated to be about 1012 𝛺/cm. The FWHM energy resolution of the detector for a photoelectric peak for the 59.5 keV 𝛾-rays is found to be about 5 keV."[21]

Lead(II)) sulfides

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Galena is shown with some golden colored pyrite from the Huanzala mine, Huallanca, Bolognesi, Ancash, Peru. Credit: Ivar Leidus|Ivar Leidus.{{free media}}

Like the related materials lead selenide (PbSe) and lead telluride (PbTe), PbS is a semiconductor.[22] In fact, lead sulfide was one of the earliest materials to be used as a semiconductor.[23]

Lead sulfide-containing nanoparticle and quantum dots have been well studied.[24] Traditionally, such materials are produced by combining lead salts with a variety of sulfide sources.[25][26] PbS nanoparticles have been recently examined for use in solar cells.[27]

Although of little commercial value, PbS is one of the oldest and most common detection element materials in various infrared detectors.[28]

Crystals of PbS were grown aboard the LDEF Mission I Experiments.

Long Duration Exposure Facility

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The Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) was designed by the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to test the performance of spacecraft materials, components, and systems that have been exposed to the environment of micrometeoroids and space debris for an extended period of time. Credit: NASA.{{free media}}

Although 7
Be is usually assumed to have been produced by the Big Bang nuclear fusion, excesses (100x) of the isotope on the leading edge[29] of the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) relative to the trailing edge suggest that fusion near the surface of the Sun is the most likely source.[30] The particular reaction 3
He(α,γ)7
Be and the associated reaction chains 7
Be(e-,νe)7
Li(p,α)α and 7
Be(p,γ)8
B => 2α + e+ + νe generate 14% and 0.1% of the α-particles, respectively, and 10.7% of the present-epoch luminosity of the Sun.[31] Usually, the 7
Be produced is assumed to be deep within the core of the Sun; however, such 7
Be would not escape to reach the leading edge of the LDEF.

Lunar materials

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Based on the 3
He-flare flux from the Sun's surface and Surveyor 3 samples (implanted 15
N and 14
C in lunar material) from the surface of the Moon, the level of nuclear fusion occurring in the solar atmosphere is approximately at least two to three orders of magnitude greater than that estimated from solar flares such as those of August 1972.[32]

Lutetium aluminum garnets

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File:Lutetium aluminum garnet crystal.png
Lutetium Aluminum Garnet has the smallest lattice constant of the rare earth garnets. Credit: R. L. Aggarwal, D. J. Ripin, J. R. Ochoa, and T. Y. Fan.{{fairuse}}

Lutetium aluminum garnet (LuAG, molecular formula Lu
3Al
5O
12) is an inorganic compound useful in the synthesis of transparent ceramics.[33]

LuAG is a dopable scintillating crystal that demonstrates luminescence after excitation selected for high structural perfection, high density and high effective atomic number. LuAG is particularly favored over other crystals for its high density and thermal conductivity, a relatively small lattice constant in comparison to the other rare-earth element garnets, which results in a higher density producing a crystal field with narrower linewidths and greater energy level splitting in absorption and emission.[34]

These properties make it an excellent host for active ions such as Yb, Tm, Er, and Ho employed in diode-pumped solid-state lasers, where the density of the lutetium crystal is greater than that of other metals, such as yttrium, meaning that the crystal properties do not change with the addition of dopant ions.[35] It can be especially useful for high energy particle detection and quantification on account of its density and thermal stability. This high melting temperature, in addition to the lack of availability of lutetium has made this crystal less commonly used than its fellow garnets, despite its favorable physical properties.[33]

Mercury tellurides

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This coloradoite is from the La Plata District of Colorado. Credit: Robert M. Lavinsky.{{free media}}

Coloradoite (HgTe), or mercury telluride, usually has gold within as a high-finess native metal.[36]

Coloradoite, a member of the coordination subclass of tellurides, is a covalent compound that is isostructural with sphalerite (ZnS).[37]

The chemical formula for coloradoite is HgTe. Theoretically the composition (%) of HgTe is Hg 61.14, Te 38.86;[38] The table shows results from a chemical analyses[38] on samples collected from two different locations. Because it is found with other telluride ores, it carries some other metals like gold and silver.[39] In its pure form, it has the composition mentioned above. A little hard to identify, petzite which is hazardous could be mistaken for coloradoite, on the other hand, petzite is anisotropic as opposed to coloradoite being an isotropic mineral.[40] It is a binary compound with the general formula AX.

Results of chemical analyses of coloradoite (%)[38]
Components Kalgoorlie, Western Australia Lakeshore, Ontario
Hg 60.95 61.62 58.55
Pb - - 1.60
Te 39.98 38.43 39.10
Insoluble residue - - 0.25
Total 100.33 100.05 99.50

Coloradoite has a sphalerite structure also known as the "diamond" or "blende" structure; a face centered cubic array in which Hg2+ are in tetrahedral coordination with Te2−, with a stacking sequence of ABCABC.[41] The tetrahedra in the sphalerite group are joined together through their apices and rotated through 60° with respect to each other.[42] Figure 1 shows the atomic structure of coloradoite. The structure is a unit cube with the Te2− ions at the corners and face centers. The four mercury atoms are coordinated so that each mercury atom lies at the center of a regular tetrahedron of tellurium atoms and each tellurium lies at the center of a regular tetrahedron of mercury atoms. Its crystal point group of 43m and space group is F43m.[43] It is a covalent compound with a high proportion of metallic bonding, due to its low valencies and even lower interatomic distances . It is also isotropic, meaning it has just one refractive index.[37]

Common Impurities: Pb.[44]

HgTe bonds are weak leading to low hardness values: 2.7×107 kg/m2.[45][4][46]

HgTe is naturally p-type due to mercury vacancies. P-type doping is also achieved by introducing zinc, copper, silver, or gold.[45][4]

Mercury-telluride quantum well shows a unique new state of matter—the "topological insulator": while the bulk is an insulator, current can be carried by electronic states confined close to the sample edges, unlike the quantum hall effect, here no magnetic field is required to create this unique behavior.[47]

Oppositely directed edge states carry opposite spin projections.[47]

Micrometeoroids

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Main article: Radiation/Meteors
The damage was caused by micrometeoroid impact. Credit: NASA.

"At the Kennedy Space Center [...], engineers are assessing options for fixing a radiator panel mounted on the inside of the shuttle Atlantis' right-side payload bay door. The panel apparently was damaged when a piece of space debris or a micrometeoroid slammed into the radiator, presumably during the shuttle's flight last month [September 2006], blasting .108-inch-wide hole in the upper surface and destroying the aluminum honeycomb material below before exiting the other side."[48]

"The impact did not threaten the crew and the damage can be repaired. But it illustrates the danger posed by micrometeoroid/orbital debris (MMOD) and the reason why NASA considers such strikes a high risk. The odds of a catastrophic impact-related entry failure range between 1-in-210 to 1-in-350, depending on whether the astronauts inspect the ship in orbit prior to re-entry."[48]

"A preliminary engineering analysis shows the impact in question was one of the most significant instances of MMOD damage in shuttle history, second only to a cargo bay door impact during shuttle mission STS-72 in 1996."[48]

"The shuttle's 60-foot-long payload bay doors each feature four radiator panels that are exposed to space once the doors are opened in orbit. The forward two radiator panels measure about one inch thick, feature Freon coolant tubes positioned about 1.9 inches apart and can pivot to radiate from both sides. The aft panels are fixed and only radiate from one side. They measure a half inch thick and feature coolant tubes separated by about 5 inches. The interior of the panels is made up of an aluminum honeycomb material."[48]

"The impact on Atlantis's right-side, or starboard, radiator was found roughly midway between two coolant lines on panel No. 4. The object blasted a .108-inch-wide hole and presumably broke apart on impact. The resulting spray of debris created a cone-shaped damage cavity immediately below the face plate, destroying the honeycomb interior to the full half-inch depth of the panel. The lower face sheet was pushed out in two places. A .26-inch crack and a .03-inch-wide exit hole were found."[48]

"At orbital velocities, even tiny pieces of debris pose a serious threat. An aluminum sphere just .4 inches across moving at 10 kilometers per second, or 22,370 mph, carries the same impact energy as a bowling ball moving at 300 mph."[48]

Thallium bromides

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"Thallium bromide (TlBr) is a compound semiconductor characterized by wide band-gap energy (2.68 eV), high atomic numbers (Tl: 81, Br: 35) and high density (7.56 g/cm3). Mobility-lifetime products for electrons and holes in TlBr crystals are 1 x 103 cm2/V and 3 x 10-4 cm2/V, respectively, which are comparable to for carriers in CdTe crystals. Therefore, TlBr is a suitable material for fabrication of X- and gamma-ray detectors."[49]

Hypotheses

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Main article: Hypotheses
  1. The use of satellites should provide ten times the information as sounding rockets or balloons.

A control group for a radiation satellite would contain

  1. a radiation astronomy telescope,
  2. a two-way communication system,
  3. a positional locator,
  4. an orientation propulsion system, and
  5. power supplies and energy sources for all components.

A control group for radiation astronomy satellites may include an ideal or rigorously stable orbit so that the satellite observes the radiation at or to a much higher resolution than an Earth-based ground-level observatory is capable of.

See also

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References

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  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Sheldon (April 29, 2011). Materials: Out of This World. Washington DC USA: NASA News. http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html. Retrieved 2014-01-08. 
  2. ↑ Fischer, P.; Waldner, F. (1982). "Comparison of neutron diffraction and EPR results on the cubic crystal structures of piezoelectric Bi4Y3O12 (Y = Ge, Si)". Solid State Communications 44 (5): 657–661. doi:10.1016/0038-1098(82)90575-0. 
  3. ↑ Bismuth Germanate Scintillation Material. crystals.saint-gobain.com
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 P. Capper (1994). Properties of Narrow-Gap Cadmium-Based Compounds. London, UK: INSPEC, IEE. 
  5. ↑ Schmidt; Hansen (1983). "Calculation of intrinsic carrier concentration in HgCdTe". Journal of Applied Physics 54. doi:10.1063/1.332153. 
  6. ↑ Hansen (1982). "Energy gap versus alloy composition and temperature in HgCdTe". Journal of Applied Physics 53. doi:10.1063/1.330018. 
  7. ↑ Kinch (2005). "Minority Carrier Lifetime in p-HgCdTe". Journal of Electronic Materials 34 (6): 880–884. doi:10.1007/s11664-005-0036-2. 
  8. ↑ Redfern (2001). "Diffusion Length Measurements in p-HgCdTe Using Laser Beam Induced Current". Journal of Electronic Materials 30 (6): 696–703. doi:10.1007/BF02665858. 
  9. ↑ Wilson, Matthew David; Cernik, Robert; Chen, Henry; Hansson, Conny; Iniewski, Kris; Jones, Lawrence L.; Seller, Paul; Veale, Matthew C. (2011). "Small pixel CZT detector for hard X-ray spectroscopy". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 652: 158–161. doi:10.1016/j.nima.2011.01.144. 
  10. ↑ Luke, P.N. (1995). "Unipolar charge sensing with coplanar electrodes -- application to semiconductor detectors". IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 42 (4): 207–213. doi:10.1109/23.467848. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc684991/. 
  11. ↑ Seller, P.; Bell, S.; Cernik, R. J.; Christodoulou, C.; Egan, C. K.; Gaskin, J. A.; Jacques, S.; Pani, S. et al. (2011). "Pixellated Cd(Zn)Te high-energy X-ray instrument". Journal of Instrumentation 6 (12): C12009. doi:10.1088/1748-0221/6/12/C12009. PMID 22737179. PMC 3378031. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3378031/. 
  12. ↑ Verbelen, Yannick; Martin, Peter G.; Ahmad, Kamran; Kaluvan, Suresh; Scott, Thomas B. (2021). "Miniaturised Low-Cost Gamma Scanning Platform for Contamination Identification, Localisation and Characterisation: A New Instrument in the Decommissioning Toolkit". Sensors 21 (8). doi:10.3390/s21082884. PMC 8074328. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8074328/. 
  13. ↑ Rossner, W., M. Ostertag, and F. Jermann. "Properties and Applications of Gadolinium Oxysulfide Based Ceramic Scintillators." Electrochemical Society Prceeedings, 98, 187-94.
  14. ↑ Greskovich, C.; Duclos, S. (1997). "Ceramic Scintillators". Annual Review of Materials Science 27: 69–88. doi:10.1146/annurev.matsci.27.1.69. 
  15. ↑ Rossner, W., M. Ostertag, and F. Jermann. "Properties and Applications of Gadolinium Oxysulfide Based Ceramic Scintillators." Electrochemical Society Prceeedings, 98, 187-94.
  16. ↑ [1]
  17. ↑ Gadolinium Oxysulfide; MSDS [online]; R.H. Mangels: Hackettstown, NJ, March 15, 1997. http://www.nonius.nl/manualspdf/msdsGadolinumOxysulfide.pdf (accessed October 17, 2011)
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Shah, K. S.; Olschner, F.; Moy, L. P.; Bennett, P.; Misra, M.; Zhang, J.; Squillante, M. R.; Lund, J. C. (1996). "Lead iodide X-ray detection systems". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment. Proceedings of the 9th International Workshop on Room Temperature Semiconductor X- and γ-Ray Detectors, Associated Electronics and Applications 380 (1–2): 266–270. doi:10.1016/S0168-9002(96)00346-4. 
  19. ↑ Patnaik, P. (2002). Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0070494398
  20. ↑ Fornaro, L.; Saucedo, E.; Mussio, L.; Yerman, L.; Ma, X.; Burger, A. (2001). "Lead iodide film deposition and characterization". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 458 (1–2): 406–412. doi:10.1016/S0168-9002(00)00933-5. 
  21. ↑ T. Shoji, K. Hitomi, T. Tiba, T. Suehiro and Y. Hiratate (June 1998). "Fabrication of a nuclear radiation detector using the PbI2 crystal and its response characteristics for gamma-rays". IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 45 (3): 581-584. doi:10.1109/23.682452. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/682452. Retrieved 7 February 2022. 
  22. ↑ Vaughan, D. J.; Craig, J. R. (1978). Mineral Chemistry of Metal Sulfides. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
  23. ↑ C.Michael Hogan. 2011. Sulfur. Encyclopedia of Earth, eds. A.Jorgensen and C.J.Cleveland, National Council for Science and the environment, Washington DC
  24. ↑ "The Quantum Mechanics of Larger Semiconductor Clusters ("Quantum Dots")". Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 41 (1): 477–496. 1990-01-01. doi:10.1146/annurev.pc.41.100190.002401. 
  25. ↑ Zhou, H. S.; Honma, I.; Komiyama, H.; Haus, Joseph W. (2002-05-01). "Coated semiconductor nanoparticles; the cadmium sulfide/lead sulfide system's synthesis and properties". The Journal of Physical Chemistry 97 (4): 895–901. doi:10.1021/j100106a015. 
  26. ↑ Wang, Wenzhong; Liu, Yingkai; Zhan, Yongjie; Zheng, Changlin; Wang, Guanghou (2001-09-15). "A novel and simple one-step solid-state reaction for the synthesis of PbS nanoparticles in the presence of a suitable surfactant". Materials Research Bulletin 36 (11): 1977–1984. doi:10.1016/S0025-5408(01)00678-X. 
  27. ↑ Lee, HyoJoong; Leventis, Henry C.; Moon, Soo-Jin; Chen, Peter; Ito, Seigo; Haque, Saif A.; Torres, Tomas; Nüesch, Frank et al. (2009-09-09). "PbS and CdS Quantum Dot-Sensitized Solid-State Solar Cells: "Old Concepts, New Results"". Advanced Functional Materials 19 (17): 2735–2742. doi:10.1002/adfm.200900081. ISSN 1616-3028. 
  28. ↑ Putley, E H; Arthur, J B (1951). "Lead Sulphide – An Intrinsic Semiconductor". Proceedings of the Physical Society. Series B 64 (7): 616–618. doi:10.1088/0370-1301/64/7/110. 
  29. ↑ Fishman GJ, Harmon BA, Gregory JC, Pamell TA, Peters P, Phillips GW, King SE, August RA, Ritter J, Cuichin JH, Haskins PS, McKisson JE, Ely D, Weisenberger AG, Piercey RB, Dybler T (February 19991). "Observation of 7Be on the surface of LDEF spacecraft". Nature 349 (6311): 678-80. doi:10.1038/349678a0. 
  30. ↑ Maurice Dubin and Robert K. Soberman (April 1996). "Resolution of the Solar Neutrino Anomaly". arXiv: 1-8. http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9604074. Retrieved 2012-11-11. 
  31. ↑ Krčmar, M.; Krečak, Z.; LjubičiĆ, A.; Stipčević, M.; Bradley, D. A. (December 2001). "Search for solar axions using 7
    Li    "    . Physical Review D (Particles and Fields) 64 (11): 115016-9. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.64.115016. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001PhRvD..64k5016K. Retrieved 2014-03-11.     
  32. ↑ Fireman EL, Damico J, Defelice J (March 1975). Solar-wind tritium limit and nuclear processes in the solar atmosphere, In: Lunar Science Conference Proceedings 6th Houston TX. 2. New York: Pergamon Press, Inc.. pp. 1811–21. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975LPSC....6.1811F. Retrieved 2014-03-11. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Moore, Cheryl (2015). "Towards a Greater Understanding of Hydrothermally Grown Garnets and Sesquioxide Crystals for Laser Applications". Clemson University Tiger Prints. 
  34. ↑ R. L. Aggarwal. "Lutetium Aluminum Garnet - LuAG - Lu
    3    Al
    5    O
    12    "    . Retrieved 2016-04-29.
  35. ↑ Kiss, Z. J.; Pressley, R. J. (1966-10-01). "Crystalline Solid Lasers". Applied Optics 5 (10): 1474–86. doi:10.1364/ao.5.001474. ISSN 1539-4522. PMID 20057583. 
  36. ↑ Fadda, S., Fiori, M., Silvana and Grillo, M. (2005). "Chemical variations in tetrahedrite - tennantite minerals from the Furtei epithermal Au deposit, Sardinia, Italy: Mineral zoning and ore fluids evolution". Geochemistry, Mineralogy and Petrology (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences) 43: 79–84. http://www.geology.bas.bg/mineralogy/gmp_files/gmp43/Fadda.pdf. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Povarennykh, A. S (1972). Crystal Chemical classification of minerals. Vol I, pp. 120–121
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Vlasov, K. A. (1966) Geochemistry and Mineralogy of rare Elements and Genetic Types of Their Deposits. Volume II Mineralogy of Rare Elements. Israel Program for Scientific Translation. pp. 740–741
  39. ↑ Wallace, J. P. (1908) A study of Ore Deposits for the Practical Miner with descriptions of Ore Minerals.
  40. ↑ Ramdohr, P. (1980) The Ore minerals and their intergrowths. Second edition. Volume II, Pergamon Press. p. 524. ISBN 0080238017.
  41. ↑ Klein, C., Dutrow, B. (2007) The 23rd Edition of the Manual of Mineral Science (After JD Dana). Wiley, Hoboken
  42. ↑ Stanton, R. L. (1972), Ore petrology: New York, McGraw-Hill
  43. ↑ Anthony, John W.; Bideaux, Richard A; Bkadh, Kenneth W. and Nichols, Monte C. (1990) "Coloradoite" in Handbook of Mineralogy. Volume I: Elements, Sulfides, Sulfosalts. Mineral Data Publishing. Tucson, Arizona. p. 105. ISBN 0962209708.
  44. ↑ Coloradoite. Mindat.org
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Brice, J. and Capper, P. (eds.) (1987) Properties of mercury cadmium telluride, EMIS datareview, INSPEC, IEE, London, UK.
  46. ↑ Boctor, N.Z.; Kullerud, G. (1986). "Mercury selenide stoichiometry and phase relations in the mercury-selenium system". Journal of Solid State Chemistry 62 (2): 177. doi:10.1016/0022-4596(86)90229-X. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 König, M; Wiedmann, S; Brüne, C; Roth, A; Buhmann, H; Molenkamp, L. W.; Qi, X. L.; Zhang, S. C. (2007). "Quantum Spin Hall Insulator State in HgTe Quantum Wells". Science 318 (5851): 766–770. doi:10.1126/science.1148047. PMID 17885096. 
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 48.3 48.4 48.5 William Harwood (October 6, 2006). Shuttles to resume nighttime launches; Atlantis damaged. Spaceflight Now. http://www.spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts116/061006nighttime/. Retrieved 2013-10-29. 
  49. ↑ Toshiyuki Onodera, Keitaro Hitomi and Tadayoshi Shoji (August 2007). "Temperature Dependence of Spectroscopic Performance of Thallium Bromide X- and Gamma-Ray Detectors". IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 54 (4): 860-863. doi:10.1109/TNS.2007.902703. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4291773. Retrieved 7 February 2022. 
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{{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Repellor vehicle}}

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