Chalukya dynasty

Badami Chalukya Empire

Official languages	Sanskrit Kannada
Capitals	Early Chalukyas: Vatapi
Government	Monarchy
Preceding state	Kadambas
Succeding state	Rashtrakuta

File:Pattadakal Virupaksha temple.jpg

The Chalukya dynasty (Kannada:ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು, IPA: [ʧaːɭukjə]) was a Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the sixth and the twelfth century CE. They began to assert their independence at the decline of the Satavahana empire and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakesi II (Immadi Pulakesi) (609 – 642), one of the great kings in Indian history.^[1] Pulakesi II extended the Chalukyan Empire up to the northern extents of the Pallava kingdom and halted the southward march of Harsha by defeating him on the banks of the river Narmada. He then defeated the Vishnukundins in the southeastern Deccan. Pallava Narasimhavarman however reversed this victory by attacking and occupying the Chalukya capital Vatapi (Badami) temporarily.

The Chalukya dynasty went in to a brief decline following Pulakesi II due to internal feuds. It recovered during the reign of the equally illustrious Vikramaditya II who defeated the Pallava Nandivarman II and captured Kanchipuram. After the rise of the Rashtrakutas the Chalukyas of Badami went in to an eclipse to be recovered in the tenth century CE by Tailapa II (973 – 997). These later Chalukyas, known as the 'Western Chalukyas', ruled from Kalyani (present day Basavakalyan). Western Chalukyas were in constant conflict with the Cholas over the control of the Eastern Chalukya kingdom of Vengi. After almost three hundred years of glory, the Western Chalukyan power finally succumbed to the Hoysalas and Seuna. Somesvara IV was the last recognised Chalukya ruler.

The rise of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India had shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the rise of Badami Chalukyas.^[2] Consolidation of the entire region between the Kaveri and Narmada rivers took place for the first time by a South Indian kingdom, creation of an efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce, a new style of architecture broadly called Vesara using locally available sandstone, the growth of Kannada as a language of literature in the Jaina Puranas, Veerashaiva (Vachanas) and early Brahminical traditions, birth of Telugu literature in the eastern deccan during the 11th century are some of the important events of their rule.^[3]

While opinions vary regarding the origins of the Chalukyas, there is consensus on the opinion that they were natives to the Karnataka region.^[4] An alternate argument is that the Chalukya were descendants of the "Seleukia" tribe of Iraq and that their conflict with the Pallava of Kanchi was but a continuation of the conflict between ancient "Seleukia" and "Parthians", the proposed ancestors of Pallavas. However, this theory has been rejected for building lineage based on similar sounding clan names.^[5] A third theory that they were descendents of a chieften called Kandachaliki Remmanaka, a feudatory of the Ikshavaku of Andhra region was put forward but this has failed to explain the difference in lineage. The Kandachaliki feudatory call themselves Vashisthiputras of the Hiranyakagotra where as Chalukya inscriptions call them Harithiputras of Manavyasagotra, which is the same lineage as their early overlords, the Kadambas of Banavasi. This makes them descendents of the Kadambas. The Chalukyas took control of the territory formerly ruled by the Kadambas. Another record of Eastern Chalukyas conforms to the northern origin theory and claims one ruler of Ayodhya came south, defeated the Pallavas and married a Pallava princess. She had a child called Vijayaditya who is claimed to be the father of Pulakesi I. However, there is inscriptional evidence that the father of Pulakesi I was Ranaranga.^[6]

The Chalukya inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit. Their inscriptions call them Karnatas and their names use indigenous Kannada titles such as Priyagallam and Noduttagelvom. The names of some Chalukya kings end with the pure Kannada term arasa (meaning "king" or "chief").^{[7] [8]} The Rashtrakuta inscriptions speak of Chalukyas of Badami as Karnataka Bala (Power of Karnataka). Scholars have proposed that the word Chalukya originated from Salki or Chalki which is a Kannada word for an agricultural implement.^[9]

Inscriptions are the main source of information about the Badami Chalukya history. The Badami cave inscriptions (578) of Mangalesa, the Mahakuta Pillar inscription (602) of Mangalesa, Kappe Arabhatta record of 700 in Kannada provide more evidence of the Chalukyan language. The earliest inscription of Badami cliff dated 543 of Pulakesi I and the Aihole inscription dated 634) of Pulakesi II are examples of Sanskrit inscriptions written in Kannada script.^[10] The reign of the Chalukyas saw the arrival of Kannada as the predominant language of inscriptions along with Sanskrit, in areas of the Indian peninsula outside what is known as Tamilaham (Tamil country).^[11] Several coins of the early Chalukyas with Kannada legends have been found indicating usage of Kannada at the highest administrative level.^[12] Inscriptions from the Chalukyas have been translated and recorded by historians of the Archaeological Survey of India.^[13]

Hiuen-Tsiang, a Chinese traveller had visited the court of Pulakesi II. At the time of this vist, as mentioned in the Aihole record it is known that, Pulakesi II had divided his empire into three Maharashtrakas or great provinces comprising of 99,000 villages, possibly consisting of present day Karnataka, Maharashtra, coastal Konkan. Hiuen-Tsang was impressed with the governance of the empire and felt the benefits of kings thoughtful administration was felt far and wide.^[14] Later, Persian emperor Khusro II exchanged ambassadors with Pulakesi II.^[15]

Vidyapati Bilhana, the famous poet in the court of Vikramaditya VI of the Western Chalukya dynasty of Kalyana, mentions a legend in his work, Vikramankadeva Charita:

Indra once requested Brahma to create a hero who would put an end to godlessness in the world and punish the wicked. Agreeing to his request, Brahma looked into his Chuluka (hollow of the hands) while performing the Sandhya, and lo! From there sprang a mighty warrior. He was called Chalukya and he became the eponymous ancestor of the line. In it were born two great heroes, Harita and Manavya who raised the Chalukyas into distinct position. This story is repeated and elaborated in the Ramastipundi grant of Vimaladitya of the Eastern Chalukya family.

Another legend in the Handarike inscription of Vikramaditya VI claims that the Chalukyas were born in the interior of the Chuluka (hollow of the palm) of the sage Haritipanchashikhi when he was pouring out libations to the Gods. The Chalukyas claimed to have been nursed by the Sapta Matrikas (the seven divine mothers). It was a popular practice to link South Indian royal family lineage to a Northern kingdom in ancient times.^[16]

According to a Kalyani Chalukya inscription of Vikramaditya VI, the Chalukyas originally hailed from Ayodhya where fifty-nine kings, and later sixteen more, of this family ruled from Dakshinapatha (South India) where they had migrated.^[17]

Chalukya dynasties
Vatapi / Badami Chalukyas Jayasimha 500-520 Ranaraga 520-540 Pulakeshin I 540–566 Kirttivarman I 566–597 Mangalesha 597–609 Pulakeshin II 609–642 Adityavarman 643-645 Abhinavaditya 645-646 Chandraditya 646-649 Vijaya-Bhattarika (regent) 650-655 Vikramaditya I 655–680 Vinayaditya 680–696 Vijayaditya 696–733 Vikramaditya II 733–746 Kirtivarman II 746–753
Vengi / Eastern Chalukyas Kubja Vishnuvardhana 624–641 Jayasimha I 641–673 Indra Bhattaraka 673 Vishnu Vardhana II 673–682 Mangi Yuvaraja 682–706 Jayasimha II 706–718 Kokkili 719 Vishnuvardhana III 719–755 Vijayaditya I (Eastern Chalukya) 755–772 Vishnuvardhana IV 772–808 Vijayaditya II 808–847 Kali Vishnuvardhana V 847–849 Vijayaditya III 849–892 Chalukya Bhima I 892–921 Vijayaditya IV 921 Amma I 921–927 Beta Vijayaditya V 927 Tala I 927 Vikramaditya II 927–928 Bhima II 928 Yuddhamalla II 928–935 Chalukya Bhima II 935–947 Amma II 947–970 Tala I 970 Danarnava 970–973 Jata Choda Bhima 973–999 Shaktivarman I 1000–1011 Vimaladitya 1011–1018 Rajaraja Narendra 1019–1061 Vijayaditya VII 1061-1075
Kalyani / Western Chalukyas Tailapa II 957–997 Satyashraya 997–1008 Vikramaditya V 1008–1015 Jayasimha II 1015–1042 Someshvara I 1042–1068 Someshvara II 1068–1076 Vikramaditya VI 1076–1126 Someshvara III 1126–1138 Jagadhekamalla II 1138–1151 Tailapa III 1151–1164 Jagadhekamalla III 1163–1183 Someshvara IV 1184–1200
v t e

The Chalukyas ruled over the central Indian plateau of Deccan for over 600 years. During this period they ruled as three closely related, but individual dynasties. These are the Chalukyas of Badami, who ruled between the 6th and the 8th century, and the two sibling dynasties of Chalukyas of Kalyani or the Western Chalukyas and the Chalukyas of Vengi or the Eastern Chalukyas.^[18]

The Chalukya dynasty was established by Pulakesi I in 550.^[19] Pulakesi I took Vatapi (Badami in Bagalkot district, Karnataka) under his control and made it his capital. They are referred to as Chalukyas of Badami. Pulakesi I and his descendants ruled over an empire that comprised of the entire state of Karnataka and most of Andhra Pradesh in the Deccan. Pulakesi II was perhaps the greatest emperor of the Badami Chalukyas. His queen was princess Kadamba Devi, a princess from the dynasty of Alupas. They maintained close family and marital relationship with the Alupas of South Canara and the Gangas of Talakad. At their peak they ruled a vast empire stretching from the Kaveri to the Narmada.

The last Badami Chalukya king Kirtivarman I was overthrown by the Rashtrakuta Dandidurga in 753.

The Chalukyas revived their fortunes in 973. after their period of decline under the Rashtrakutas. While the popular theory is that the Kalyani Chalukyas belonged to the Badami Chalukya line^[20], objections have been raised by some historians indicating they may have been unrelated to the Early Chalukya family.^[21] However, it has also been noticed that the Badami Chalukyas had titles like Satyashraya, which is also the name of a Kalyani Chalukya prince and that they used titles ending with Malla which was seen commonly in other Chalukya families of the area.^[22] Irrespective of their exact origin, The reign of the Kalyani Chalukyas was a golden age in Kannada literature.^[23] Tailapa II, a Rashtrakuta feudatory ruling from Tardavadi-1000 (present day Indi taluk, Bijapur district)overthrew Krishna III and re-established the Chalukyan kingdom and recovered most of the Chalukya empire.^[24] This dynasty came to be known as the Western Chalukya dynasty or Later Chalukya dynasty.

The Western Chalukyas ruled for another 200 years and were in constant conflict with the Cholas and their cousins the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Vikramaditya VI is widely considered the greatest ruler of the dynasty. His fifty year reign is called Chalukya Vikrama Era.^[25]

The Western Chalukyas went into their final dissolution c. 1180 with the rise of the Hoysalas, Kakatiya and Seuna.

Pulakesi II (608 – 644) conquered the eastern Deccan, corresponding to the coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh in 616, defeating the remnants of the Vishnukundina kingdom. He appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy.^[26] On the death of Pulakesi II, the Vengi Viceroyalty developed into an independent kingdom. Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi outlived the main Vatapi dynasty by many generations. The Eastern Chalukyas were originally of Kannada descent. However after a period of time local factors took over and they gave importance to Telugu language.^[27]

File:Pattadakal templepair.jpg

The period of Badami Chalukya dynasty saw art and literature flourish in South India. It saw some remarkable achievements in the myriad realms of culture, particularly in the evolution and proliferation of their unique style of architecture known as Vesara, a combination of the South Indian and the North Indian building styles. Chalukyas have left behind their legacy of some of the most beautiful architecture and literature. Sage Bharata's dance Natyasastra was in an advanced state of development.^[28] One of the richest traditions in Indian architecture took shape in the Deccan during this time and is called as Karnata Dravida style as opposed to traditional Dravida style.^[29] The Vesara style influenced the Eastern Chalukyas. This is evidenced by the presence of similar styles in Alumpur in Kurnool district of present day Andhra Pradesh. The Kalyani Chalukyas further refined the Vesara style with a inclination towards dravidian concepts, especially in the sculptures. They built fine monuments in the Tungabhadra - Krishna river doab in present day Karnataka.

The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture and art that they left behind. More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to the Badami Chalukya and built between 450 - 700 CE remain in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka.

The rock-cut temples of Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Badami and Aihole are their most celebrated monuments. Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are attributed to them^[30]. This is the beginnings of Chalukyan style of architecture and a consolidation of South Indian style.

In Aihole, the Durga temple (6th century), Ladh Khan temple (450), Meguti temple (634), Hucchimalli and Huccappayya temples (5th century), Badami Cave temples (600) are examples of early Chalukyan art. The majestic temples at Pattadakal were commissioned by Vikramaditya II (740). Here the Virupakshaand Mallikarjuna(740), Sangameswara(725) and a Jain temple are in the dravidian style while Jambulinga, Kasivisweswara and Galaganatha(740) are in the Northern nagara style. The Papanatha (680) temple shows an attempt to combine the Northern and Southern styles.

According to some art critics, the Badami Chalukya style is a "prayaga" or confluence of formal trends of architecture, the dravida and nagara. The temples were a result of religious enthusiasm and intensity of purpose^[31].

File:Badami Narasimha cave3.jpg

The rule of the Chalukyas is a major event in the history of Kannada and Telugu languages. During this time, writing epic narratives and poetry in Sanskrit and Prakrit were very popular. However during the 9th - 10th century, Kannada language had already seen some of its greatest writers. The three gems of Kannada poetics, Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna belonged to this period.^[32] In the 11th century, Telugu literature was born under the auspicies of the Eastern Chalukyas with Nannaya Bhatta as its first writer. Famous writers in Sanskrit from this period were Vijnaneshwara achieved fame by writing Mitakshara a book on Hindu law.^[33] Somesvara III was a great scholar and king complied an encyclopedia of all arts and sciences called Manasollasa.^[34]

Under Badami Chalukya
So far no major literary work from this period has been recovered, though many works have been referenced in later centuries. The literary work Karnateshwara Katha, which was quoted later by Jayakirti, belonged to the period of Pulakesi II with the great king himself as the hero.^[35] Other Kannada writers of this time whose works have not yet been recovered are Syamakundacharya (650), Tumbuluracharya (who wrote Chudamani), King Durvinita, and others.^[36] The Aihole inscription (634) of Pulakesi II written by court poet Ravi Kirti in old Kannada script and Sanskrit language is considered as an excellent piece of poetry.^[37] In Sanskrit, a few verses of a poetess called Vijayanaka who has been preserved.

The army consisted of infantry, cavalry, elephant corps and a powerful navy. The elephants were intoxicated prior to battle. It was with their navy that they conquered Revatidvipa (Goa) and Puri on east coast of India. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use the term Karnatabala referring to their powerful armies.^[38] Taxes were levied and called Herjunka, Kirukula, Bilkode and Pannaya.

The empire was divided into Maharashtrakas (provinces), then into smaller Rashtrakas (Mandals), Vishaya (district), Bhoga (taluk). There were many autonomous regions ruled by feudatories like Alupas, Gangas, Banas, Sendrakas etc. At the lower levels of administration, the Kadamba style fully prevailed.

The Badami Chalukyas minted coins that were of a different standard compared to the northern kingdoms.^[39] The coins had Nagari and Kannada legends. They minted coins with symbols of temples, lion or boar facing right and the lotus. The coins weighed 4gms and were called honnu in old Kannada and had fractions such as fana and the quarter fana, whose modern day equivalent being hana(literally means, money). A gold coin called Gadyana is mentioned in some record in Pattadakal which later came to be known a varaha which was also on their emblem.

The rule of the Badami Chalukya was a period of religious harmony. They were themselves initially followers of Vedic Hindusim as seen in the various temples dedicated to many popular Hindu deities with Aihole as the experimental laboratory and Pattadakal as the location of their grandest architecture. The worship of Lajja Gauri, the fertility goddess was equally popular. Later from the time of Vikramaditya I took an inclination towards Shaivism and sects like Pashupata, Kapalikas and Kalamukhas existed. However they actively encouraged Jainsm and attested to by one of the Badami cave temples and other Jain temples in the Aihole complex. Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesi II was a Jain. Buddhism was on a decline having made its ingress into south-east Asia, as confirmed by Hiuen-Tsiang. Badami, Aihole and Kurtukoti, Puligere (Laksmeshwara in Gadag district) were primary places of learning.

The Hindu caste system was present and prostitution was recognised by the government. Some kings had concubines (Ganikas) who were given much respect, sati was perhaps absent as inscriptions speak of widows and devadasis' were present. Sage Bharata's Natyashastra or Bharatanatyam, the dance of South India was popular as seen in many sculptures and mentioned in inscriptions. Woman enjoyed political power in administration. Queens Vijayanka, a noted Sanskrit poetess, Kumkumadevi, the younger sister of Vijayaditya and Lokamahadevi, queen of Vikramaditya II who fought wars stand as examples.

An yearly celebration called Chalukya utsava, a three-day festival of music and dance organized by the Government of Karnataka is held every year at Pattadakal, Badami and Aihole.^[40] A Kannada movie of the 1960's called Immadi Pulakeshi celebrates the life and times of the great king starring Dr. Rajkumar.

• South Indian Inscriptions
• Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955). A History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
• Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath (2001). Concise History of Karnataka, MCC, Bangalore (Reprinted 2002).
• Dr. Romila Thapar, The Penguin History of Early India, From Origin to 1300 AD., 2003, Penguin, New Delhi.

• Badami Chalukya Architecture
• Hoysala Empire
• Chola Empire
• Eastern Chalukyas
• Chalukya Cholas
• Badami Cave temple
• Pulakesi II

• Indian Inscriptions - Archeological Survey of India
• Chalukyan Art by Dr. Jyotsna Kamat
• List of rulers of Maharashtra
• History Of Karnataka, Mr. Arthikaje © 1998-00 OurKarnataka.Com,Inc
• Coins of Chalukyas
• The Chalukyan magnificence
• Coins of Alupas, a Chalukya feudatory
• Aihole temples
• Badami caves temples
• Pattadakal temples
• Emperor among Temples, The Hindu, June 10th. 2002