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Dassault Rafale

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Rafale
File:Rafale-ec-1-7.jpg
A Rafale B (foreground), and a Rafale C (background) of the French Air Force
Role Multirole fighter aircraft
National origin France
Manufacturer Dassault Aviation
First flight 4 July 1986
Introduction 4 December 2000
Status In production, in service
Primary users French Air Force
French Navy

The Dassault Rafale (French pronunciation: [ʁafal], squall)[1] is a French twin-engine delta-wing multi-role jet fighter aircraft designed and built by Dassault Aviation. It is called an "omnirole" fighter by its manufacturer.[2]

Introduced in 2000, the Rafale is being produced both for land-based use with the French Air Force and for carrier-based operations with the French Navy. It has also been marketed for export to several countries, but has not yet received orders.

In the late 1970s, the Air Force and Navy were seeking replacements for its aircraft. To save development costs, France agreed with four other nations to produce an air dominance fighter, but subsequent disagreements led to a split. To satisfy stringent criteria formulated by the Ministry of Defense, Dassault built a technology demonstrator to prove the viability of its new product. Further development led to the current Rafale variants, which embody innovative avionics and aerodynamics, optimised for air supremacy operations.

Development

Logo with black stylised word "Rafale" against white background
The logo of the Dassault Rafale programme

Requirements

In the mid-1970s, both the French Air Force (Armée de l'Air) and Navy (Marine nationale) had requirements for a new generation of fighters to replace those in or about to enter service.[3] Because their requirements were similar, and to reduce cost, both departments issued a common request for proposal.[4]

In 1979 Dassault joined the Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm/British Aerospace "European Collaborative Fighter" project which was named the "European Combat Aircraft".[5] This project collapsed in 1981 but in 1983 the "Future European Fighter Aircraft" (FEFA) programme was begun. Italy, Spain, West Germany, France and the United Kingdom agreed to jointly develop a new fighter, although the latter three had their own aircraft developments.[6]

A number of factors led to the eventual split between France and the four countries. France wanted Dassault to lead the project; moreover, France demanded a swing-role fighter that was lighter than a design desired by the other four nations.[3] For these reasons, France and the other nations split in 1985, after which France committed to its own design.[7][8] These nations would develop what would later be named the Eurofighter Typhoon.[9][10]

Technology demonstrator

The Dassault Rafale A technology demonstrator in 2006

In France, the government proceeded with its own programme. The French Ministry of Defense required an aircraft capable of air-to-air and air-to-ground, all-day and adverse weather operations. It would perform roles previously filled by an assortment of dedicated platforms, including the Jaguar, F-8P Crusader, Mirage F1C/R/T, Mirage 2000/N, Etendard IVPM and Super Etendard.[3]

In June 1982, Dassault announced it was developing a successor to the Mirage 2000.[6] On 13 April 1983, France awarded Dassault a contract for two Avion de Combat eXpérimental (ACX) demonstrators, later revised down to one.

The resultant Rafale A technology demonstrator was a large-delta winged fighter, with all-moving foreplanes, embodying fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system.[3] The technology demonstrator was rolled out in December 1985 in Saint-Cloud, making its maiden flight on 4 July 1986 from Istres.[3] It was initially powered by General Electric F404-GE-400 afterburning turbofans found on the F-18 Hornet, instead of the Snecma M88, to reduce the risk that often comes with a first flight, and since the M88 was not considered sufficiently mature for the initial trials programme.[1][3] It was not until May 1990 when the M88 replaced the port F404 in the demonstrator; thereafter, it reached Mach 1.4 and demonstrated supercruise. After 865 flights, Rafale A was retired in January 1994.[3]

Budget cuts

With the fall of the Berlin Wall and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union, signalling the end of the Cold War, the French government considerably cut the defense budget. This resulted in the reorganisation of the Air Force, the phasing out of the Mirage 5F and the decision to upgrade 55 Mirage F1Cs to tactical fighter configuration, the Mirage F1CT.

Budgets that would otherwise have been spent on the Rafale program were instead diverted elsewhere.[3]

Testing

Air Force

Pale gray jet aircraft flying towards left of camera. Smoke trial the aircraft's wing tips
Rafale B at the Paris Air Show 2007

To meet various roles expected to be performed by the new platform, the Air Force required two variants: the single-seat "Rafale C", with C standing for chasseur (fighter), and the "Rafale B", with B standing for biplace (two-seater). The prototype of the C model (designated C01) completed its first flight on 19 May 1991, signalling the start of a test programme which primarily aims to expand the flight envelope, test the M88-2 engines and, later, man/machine interface and weapons.[11] Due to budget constraints, the second single-single-seat prototype was never built.[12]

The C01 differed significantly from the Rafale A. Although superficially identical to the technology demonstrator, it was smaller and more stealthy through the coating the canopy with gold, re-designing the fuselage-fin joint, and the addition of radar-absorbent materials (RAM). This aircraft also saw extensive application of composite and other materials, which both reduce the radar cross-section (RCS) and weight. Moreover, Dassault opted for the absence of variable engine inlets and a dedicated air brake, which lessens maintenance loads and saves weight.[13]

The B01, the only prototype of the two-seat B variant, made its maiden flight on 30 April 1993.[11] It is 350 kilograms (772 lb) heavier than the single-seater, but carries 400 litres (106 US gal) less fuel. The aircraft was used for weapon-systems testing. Later it saw validation roles regarding weapon separation and, specifically, the carriage of heavy loads. The aircraft normally flies with 2,000-litre (528 US gal) external tanks, two Apache/Scalp cruise missiles, in addition to four air-to-air missiles[14]

A French Navy Rafale M performing a touch-and-go landing on the deck of the carrier USS John C. Stennis (CVN-74).

The Navy, meanwhile, sought a carrier-based aircraft to supersede its fleet of ageing Etendard IPVMs, F-8P Crusaders and Super Etendard Modernises. Faced with no funds with which to develop a suitable fighter, the Navy was forced into modernising the Crusaders. Eventually, the requirement was met with the Rafale M, with M standing for Marine.

The prototype (M01) first flew on 12 December 1991, followed by the second on 8 November 1993.[11][15] It featured greatly reinforced undercarriage to cope with the phenomenal stress on landing, an arrestor hook, and "jump strut" nosewheel, which only extends as the aircraft takeoff during a catapult launch.[11] It also features a built-in ladder, carrier-based microwave landing system, and the new fin-tip Telemir system which enables its inertial navigation system to communicate with the aircraft carrier.[14]

Altogether, the modifications and additions makes it 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) heavier than the other variants.[16] Nevertheless, Rafale M still retains high commonality with the Air Force's variants, although this means inability of its multi-spar wings to be folded (a vital asset with carrier-borne operations). However, this coincided with the then latest nuclear-powered carrier to enter service, the Charles de Gaulle, which was larger than the FS Foch and Clemenceau.[14]

As France had no land-based catapult test facility, catapult trials were initially carried out between during July–August  1992 and early the following year, at NAS Lakehurst in New Jersey. The aircraft then carried out trials aboard the carrier FS Foch in April 1993. At the controls of Dassault's chief test pilot, Yves Kerhervé, M02 made its maiden flight in November that year, while the first prototype completed the third round of testing at Lakehurst in November and December 1993.[16]

Procurement

Initially, the Rafale B was to be just a trainer, but the Gulf War and Kosovo War showed that a second crew member is invaluable on strike and reconnaissance missions, and therefore more Rafale Bs were ordered, replacing some Rafale Cs.

In 1991, the Air Force switched its preferences towards the two-seater, announcing that 60% of the Rafale fleet would be made up of the variant.[17]

The AdA originally envisaged taking delivery of 250 Rafales, but this was revised downwards to 234 aircraft, made up of 95 "A" and 139 "B" models";[15][18] this was further reduced to 212 aircraft.[17] The Navy, meanwhile, had 60 Rafales on order, down from 86 due to budget cuts.[15][17] Of the 60, 25 would be M single-seaters and 35 two-seat Ns.[18]

Production

Production of the first aircraft series formally started in December 1992, but was suspended in November 1995 due to political and economic uncertainty. Production only resumed in January 1997 after the Ministry of Defense and Dassault agreed on a 48-aircraft (28 firm and 20 options) production run with delivery between 2002 and 2007.[17] It was not until 1999 that a production Rafale M flew.[citation needed] A combined 180 Rafales have been ordered as of 2011.[19]

Landscape photograph of two jet parked side-by-side on carrier deck, with faint white line running down the middle.
Two Rafales on the deck of the Charles de Gaulle by sunrise.

The marine version was a high priority to replace the older F-8E(FN) Crusader; a total of 12 were still in service on 15 December 1999, when the type was retired.[20] Service deliveries began in 2001 and the type entered service on 4 December 2000, though the first squadron, Flotille 12, did not actually reform until 18 May 2001. The unit embarked on the Charles de Gaulle in 2002, becoming fully operational on 25 June 2004, following an extended operational evaluation that included flying limited escort and tanker missions in support of Operation Enduring Freedom over Afghanistan.[citation needed]

The Armée de l'Air received its first three Rafale Bs (to F2 standards) in late December 2004. They went to the Centre d'Expériences Aériennes Militaires (CEAM) at Mont-de-Marsan for operational evaluation and associated pilot conversion training.[15]

The total programme cost, as of 2010, is around €40.690 billion, which translates to a unit programme cost of approximately €142.3 million. The unit flyaway price as of 2010 is €101.1 million for the F3+ version.[21]

Design

Aerodynamics

The Rafale features a delta wing combined with active integrated (close-coupled) canard to maximize maneuverability, while withstanding 9 g or −3.6 g)[22] and maintaining stability in flight.[23]

The canard also reduces landing speed to 115 knots (213 km/h; 132 mph). According to internal sources (Les essais en vol du Rafale) low speed limit is 100 knots (190 km/h; 120 mph), but 80 knots (150 km/h; 92 mph) is sometimes demonstrated during airshows by pilots willing to showcase "low speed qualities of the aircraft". "A minimum of 15 kt have been reached during simulated combat vs a Mirage 2000 by an aggressive pilot."[23] The aircraft can operate from 400-metre (1,300 ft) runways.[22]

Sensors and avionics

Built as an air supremacy fighter, the Rafale features an advanced avionics suite designed to provide its pilots with excellent situational awareness. It has a real-time data link for communication with other aircraft and fixed and mobile command and control centres.[citation needed]

SPECTRA integrated self-protection system
SPECTRA's elements

It features an integrated electronic survival system named "SPECTRA", which embodies a software-based virtual stealth technology. The SPECTRA electronic warfare system protects the aircraft against airborne and ground threats.[24] SPECTRA's capabilities were trusted to the extent that French pilots began operations against Libya without the need for SEAD support aircraft or cruise missile bombardment.[25]

RBE2 radar

The most important sensor is the Thales RBE2 passive electronically scanned multi-mode radar. Thales claims to have achieved unprecedented levels of situational awareness through the earlier detection and tracking of multiple air targets for close combat and long-range interception, as well as real-time generation of three-dimensional maps for terrain-following and the real-time generation of high resolution ground maps for navigation and targeting.[citation needed]

OSF, passive sensor system
OSF is visible upfront, beside the refueling boom.

In circumstances when signature management is required, the Rafale can use several passive sensor systems. The front-sector electro-optical system or Optronique Secteur Frontal (OSF), developed by Thales, is completely integrated within the aircraft and can operate both in the visible and infrared wavelengths.[26]

Modular Data Processing Unit (MDPU)

The Rafale core systems employ an Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA), called MDPU (Modular Data Processing Unit). This architecture hosts all the core functions of the aircraft as Flight management system, Data Fusion, Fire Control, Man-Machine Interface, etc.[27][N 1] The total value of the radar, electronic communications and self-protection equipment is about 30% of the cost of the entire aircraft.[28]

Areos reconnaissance and Damoclès

The Rafale's ground attack capability had been limited by the lack of an advanced targeting pod,[29] but this has been rectified with this addition of Thales Optronique's Reco New Generation/Areos reconnaissance and Damocles targeting pods electro-optical/laser designation pod on the F-3 standard.[28]

  • Areos: "This high-tech, day and night equipment can be used in a wide range of scenarios, from stand-off distances at very high altitude down to very high speed and extremely low level" "To shorten the intelligence gathering cycle and accelerate the tempo of operation, the pod is fitted with a datalink which allows high resolution images to be transmitted back in the military deciders in real-time".[30]
  • Damocles: "This new infrared (3rd generation starring array detector) and these technologies chosen for the Damocles provide extended detection and recognition ranges, permitting laser-guided armament to be delivered at substantially greater ranges from higher altitudes, considerably reducing the aircraft's vulnerability to short/medium-range air-defence systems".[30]
New RBE2 AESA radar

The new Thales RBE2 AA Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar is planned to replace the existing passively scanned array of the RBE2. Thales will begin deliveries of the new radar in August 2010 for use on the fourth tranche of Rafale aircraft. A total of 60 tranche four aircraft have been ordered to date. A Rafale demonstrator flew began test flights in 2002 and has totaled 100 flight hours since As of December 2011. "A European production line for T/R modules has been set up and six development AESAs had been delivered and three pre-series AESAs were in production, with first deliveries to Dassault Aviation plannned for 2011.[30]

Qualification of the new radar is expected by the DGA in early 2013, as part of a rolling programme of continuous improvements for the Rafale.The first production Rafale to be delivered with the AESA will be an Air Force single-seat Rafale C which will make its maiden flight in 2012. It is anticipated that the first five Armée de l'Air aircraft with the AESA will be operational by the end of 2013. By early 2014, the first Air Force front-line squadron will start flying Rafales equipped with the new radar, and the French Navy is slated to receive Rafales fitted with the AESA from 2013 for service onboard the Charles de Gaulle aircraft-carrier.[31]

Thales also claims that the AESA radar will improve the operational capabilities of the aircraft in terms of range, interception, tracking ability and countermeasures.[32] Rafale's attempts at export sales have been hindered by a lack of AESA capability, "a baseline requirement for a 21st-century aircraft.”[33]

Cockpit

The cockpit uses a Martin-Baker Mark 16F "zero-zero” ejection seat, i.e., capable of being used at zero speed and zero altitude. The seat is inclined 29° to improve G-force tolerance. The canopy hinges open to the right. An on-board oxygen generating system developed by Air Liquide is provided to eliminate the need for multiple oxygen canisters.[34]

The cockpit includes a wide-angle holographic head-up display (HUD), two head-down flat-panel colour multi-function displays (MFDs) and a center collimated display. Display interaction is by means of touch input for which the pilot wears silk-lined leather gloves. In addition, in full development, the pilot will have a head-mounted display (HMD).[35]

The pilot flies the aircraft with a side-stick controller mounted on his right and a throttle on his left. These incorporate multiple hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS) controls. The Rafale cockpit is also planned to include Direct Voice Input (DVI), allowing for pilot action by voice commands.[36]

Radar signature reduction features

Although not a true stealth aircraft, the Rafale has a reduced radar cross-section, according to Dassault. While most of the stealth design features are classified, extensive use of composite materials and serrated patterns on the trailing edges of the wings and canards help to reduce the radar cross-section.[37]

Standards

Initial F1

Initial deliveries of the Rafale M were to the F1 ("France 1") standard. This meant that the Flotille 12 aircraft was suitable for air-to-air combat, replacing the Vought F-8 Crusader as the Aviation Navale's carrier-based fighter, but not equipped or armed for air-to-ground operations.

First Multirole F2

Deliveries (to Flotille 12, and to Flotille 11 (some time after 2007) were to the "F2" standard, giving air-to-ground capability, and replacing the Dassault-Breguet Super Étendard in the ground attack role and the Dassault Étendard IVP in the reconnaissance role. In May 2006, the first Rafale M F2 standard fighters were delivered to the French Navy Operational Evaluation Unit, at Mont de Marsan, in the south of France.[38] The Rafale M is the only fixed-wing combat aircraft flown by the Aviation Navale, and plans are to upgrade all airframes to the "F3" standard, with terrain-following 3D radar and nuclear capability, from early in the decade following 2010.[39] This upgrade has been brought forward to 2010 for the first 10 French Navy Rafale F-1s.[40]

The first Rafale C delivered to the Armée de l'Air, in June 2005, was to the "F2" standard, and it is anticipated that upgrades similar to those of the navy will take place in the future. The Rafale replaces the Jaguar, Mirage F1 and the Mirage 2000 in the Armée de l'Air.

Latest, fully "Omnirole" F3

A total of 59 Rafale F3s were delivered from June 2008 to January 2012 (47 for the French Air Force (36 Rafale C + 11 Rafale B), plus 12 Rafale M carrier-borne fighters for the French Navy. The latest, "fully Omnirole F3 standard is capable of undertaking an extremely wide range of roles: air defence/air superiority missions with Mica IR and EM air-to-air missiles, precision attacks with SScalp cruise missiles and AASM Hammer modular air-to-surface armaments, anti-ships strikes with the acclaimed AM39 Exocet sea-skimmer, reconnaissance with the Thales new generation reconnaissance pod, and nuclear deterrence with ASMP-A missiles.

Among other improvements Standard F3 Rafales will be fitted with the Sagem Gerfaut Helmet-Mounted Sight and with an enhanced Thales Spectra self-defence suite. Their Thales RBE2 radar will offer high resolution cartographic modes, plus a radar terrain following capability on top of the high resolution 3D digital database introduced in the F2 variant"[41]

Engines

Main article: Snecma M88

The Snecma M88 engine in the Rafale develops 50 kN (11,250 lbf) of dry thrust and 75 kN (16,900 lbf) with afterburners. They allow it to supercruise with four missiles and a 1,250-liter belly drop tank. The naval version (Rafale M) can supercruise up to Mach 1.4 while carrying six air-to-air missiles (MBDA MICA).[42][43]

Armament, satellite launch capability

Dassault has proposed using the Rafale for the Microsatellites Airborne Microlauncher (MLA) project. The company stated, "the MLA would be an adequate launch solution for all microsatellites compelled to share auxiliary payload opportunities on large launchers with orbit imposed by the primary payload. It would also constitute a responsive launch system well adapted to Defense and Security needs ..."[44]

Dassault has indicated, "Since the end of 2004, the initial concept of a microlauncher, borne by a Dassault Mirage IV "has been revisited with the Rafale in the context of a CNES contract on a Airborne Microlauncher (MLA) project, with the support of Snecma, Snecma Propulsion Solide and SNPE Matériaux Énergétiques for propulsion aspects."[44]

The unusual aspect of this the Aldebaran project is, beside the "linear version", splitting the launcher into three connected parts (the main element under the fuselage and the two solid rocket boosters under the wing). The result is two versions:

Linear
50 kg class, with a MLA « 4 tonnes »
Trimaran
150 kg class (like Myriade satellites), with a MLA « 12 tonnes », 12 t Launcher.
Example of orbit /mass: SSO 268 km/96.5° /189 kg; or EQU 268 km/0° /268 kg[45]

French military officials have signaled some interest in a responsive space launcher concept similar to that which the United States is investigating.[46]

Operational history

France

The Rafale is now in service in the trials and training role with the French Air Force (CEAM/EC 5/330). Escadron de Chasse 1/7 at Saint-Dizier was expected to receive a nucleus of 8–10 Rafale F2s during the summer of 2006, and was set to enter full operational service (with robust air-to-air and stand off air-to-ground precision attack capabilities) during mid-2007 (when EC 1/7 will have about 20 aircraft, 15 two-seaters and five single-seaters).[47]

The Rafale is planned to be the French Air Force's primary combat aircraft until 2040 or later.[48]

In November 2009 the French government ordered an additional 60 aircraft to take the total order for the French Air Force and Navy to 180.[49]

Interoperability with US Navy
A Rafale M flies above the aircraft carrier USS John C. Stennis.

The Rafale M is fully compatible with US Navy aircraft carriers and some French Navy pilots have qualified to fly the aircraft from US Navy flight decks.[50]

On 4 June 2010, during an exercise on the USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75), a French Rafale became the first jet fighter of a foreign navy to have its jet engine changed on board an American aircraft carrier.[51]

Afghanistan, 2002

The first Rafale deployed in a combat zone were those of the French Navy during "Mission Héraclès", the French participation in "Operation Enduring Freedom". They flew from the Charles de Gaulle over Afghanistan as early as 2002, but the F1 standard precluded air-to-ground missions and the Rafale did not see any action. In June 2002, while Charles de Gaulle was in the Arabian Sea, Rafale conducted several patrols near the India-Pakistan border.[52]

In 2007, after a "crash program" enhancement six Rafales were given the ability to drop laser-guided bombs, in view of engaging them in Afghanistan. Three of these aircraft belonging to the Air Force were deployed to Dushanbe in Tajikistan, while the three others were Rafale Marines of the Navy on board the Charles De Gaulle.[53] The first mission occurred on 12 March 2007, and the first GBU-12 was launched on 28 March in support of embattled Dutch troops in Southern Afghanistan, marking the operational début of the Rafale.[54]

Dogfight in India; friendly battle F-22A-Rafale

In February 2011, Rafales flew demonstrations in India, including air-to-air combat against Su-30s.[55]

Pictures (Front Sector Optronics) of an engagement F-22A - Rafale (November 2009): "On the occasion of Lima 2011 air show in Malaysia, Dassault has issued a series of images from an engagement between the Dassault Rafale and the Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor.

One of these pictures had already been provided: it came from a friendly battle in the international exercise Advanced Tactical Leadership Course (DPAC, November 2009) at the Al Dhafra Air Base in the UAE, and it is derived from the OSF (Front Sector Optronics). "U.S. pilots were reportedly extremely surprised by the resistance of French men and machines."[56]

Libya, 2011

"French air force Rafale combat aircraft deployed here as part of the UN-sanctioned Libyan No-Fly Zone are for the first time making full use of the aircraft’s “omnirole” capabilities, which allow a single aircraft to carry out the full gamut of missions during a single sortie." [25]

"As evidenced by the missions being flown in support of France's Harmattan commitment to NATO's Operation Unified Protector over Libya, the aircraft is now a truly potent asset".[57]

Pilots "... routinely take off with four MICA air-to-air missiles, three or six AASM Hammer precision-guided bombs, a Thales Damoclès laser targeting pod or a Reco NG reconnaissance pod and two drop tanks. They can be tasked or re-tasked in flight, and routinely are, to fly combat air patrol, precision strike or reconnaissance missions during the same six- or seven-hour sortie".[25]

On 19 March 2011, French Rafale aircraft conducted reconnaissance and strike missions over Libya in Opération Harmattan, in support of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, being the first to attack and destroy heavy artillery units that had reached the outskirts of Benghazi.[58] "... the latest type of combat aircraft from Dassault Aviation does not only integrate the largest and most modern range of sensors, it also multiplies their efficiency with a technological breakthrough, the “multi-sensor data fusion".[59]

French Rafale pilots began operations against Libya without the need for Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) support aircraft or cruise missile bombardment, thanks to Spectra's capabilities[25] [the Spectra self-protection suite] "is of critical importance, as France does not have any aircraft dedicated to the SEAD missions. “Rafale was involved in Libya from Day One, and we fly several missions during a single sortie,” says detachment commander Lt. Col. Pierre G., stressing that “Omnirole Rafale” is not simply an advertising slogan but an accurate description of the aircraft’s very real capabilities. “Over Libya, the Rafale flies all kinds of missions, carrying out strike assignments and reconnaissance with the Reco NG pod while conducting our main mission, which is combat air patrol”".[25]

On 24 March 2011, the BBC initially reported that a Rafale shot down a Libyan Air Force G-2/Galeb light ground attack/trainer jet,[60] A few hours later, it was clarified that the aircraft was destroyed on the runway with an air-to-ground missile after it had landed.[61]

A Rafale M landing on an aircraft carrier.

By 14 August 2011, the 10 Rafales of the French Navy aboard the carrier Charles de Gaulle had flown 840 attack sorties[62] (with Super Etendard Modernisé), 390 reconnaissance sorties (Rafale only), and 240 refueling sorties (with Super Etendard Modernisé) on buddy-buddy refueling missions.[63]

"950 guided bomb were dropped by French Air Force and Navy Rafale and Mirage 2000s, these included an unspecified number of laser guided bombs and 240 air-launched missiles – including 15 Storm Shadow - SCALP cruise missiles and 225 GPS guided Hammers (AASM)"[64] (Rafale only).

"Also referred to as the Hammer, the AASM weapon has impressed during the campaign to date. Incorporating a precision guidance kit and propulsion system, the design will eventually be available for use with standard bombs weighing between 125 kilograms (275.6 lb) and 1,000 kilograms (2,204.6 lb), although a 250 kg version is the only one currently in service. Sagem cites a range capability of more than 32 nm from high altitude, or 8 nm from low level. Launches can also be made from an off-axis angle of up to 90°, while up to six weapons can be fired against individual targets in a single pass and with just one trigger press." And "Libya represents the first opportunity for the French air force to employ the Thales Damocles targeting pod, although the navy gave the system its combat debut over Afghanistan in late 2010."[57]

"Overall, at the beginning of the campaign, Rafale crews preferred to use the GPS guided munitions due to the higher reliability, longer range (particularly important to drop the weapons out of the range of Libyan air defenses). While the Rafales were carrying four to six Hammer weapons, they were usually flying mixed formations with Dassault Mirage 2000D, carrying two LGBs and the Damocles targeting pod. Storm Shadow SCALP weapons were spent only on one or two sorties, primarily by Navy Rafales against the Libyan military airbase of Al-Jufra (Hun)." [65]

Potential customers

Dassault Rafale Taxies to the runway for take off at Aero India 2011, Yelahanka Air force base Bangalore.

The Rafale is one of the six fighter aircraft which were competing for India's tender for 126 multi-role fighters. In April 2009, media reports surfaced stating that the Indian Air Force (IAF) had disqualified Rafale from the competition for not meeting minimum performance requirements of the IAF.[66] However, India's Defence Ministry dismissed these media reports and said that the Rafale was still in the race for the contract.[67] In April 2011, the IAF shortlisted Dassault Rafale and Eurofighter Typhoon for the $12 billion contract.[68]

In January 2006, the French newspaper Journal du Dimanche reported that Libya wanted to order 13–18 Rafales "in a deal worth as much as $3.24 billion".[69] In December 2007, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi openly declared the Libyan interest in the Rafale.[70] Greece has also expressed an interest in the French fighter, possibly in exchange for its fleet of Mirages.[71] Libya did not order any Rafales; ironically, less than three years later, during the 2011 Libyan civil war, French Rafales were dispatched over Libya as a part of the military intervention there; missiles such as SCALP EG were deployed from carrier-based Rafales.[72] During 2006, while there was potentially trouble with Anglo-American negotiations over the F-35 JSF, there was talk of purchasing the Rafale M for the British Royal Navy.[73][74] The British amended their JSF to the conventional CATOBAR carrier variant and their aircraft carriers will be fitted with catapults and able to aircraft such as Rafales.[75]

In February 2007, it was reported that Switzerland was considering the Rafale and other fighters to replace its Northrop F-5 Tiger IIs.[76] The one month evaluation started in October 2008 at Emmen Airforce Base consisting of approx. 30 evaluation flights. The Rafale along with the Saab JAS 39 Gripen and the Eurofighter were to be evaluated.[77] In September, La Tribune reported that a sale to Morocco had fallen through, the government selecting the F-16 instead.[78] In October 2007, La Tribune's earlier report appeared to have been confirmed that the Rafale would not be bought.[79]

In January 2008, O Estado de S. Paulo reported that the Brazilian Defence Minister visited France to discuss the possibility of acquiring Rafale fighters for the F-X2 program. In June 2008, the Brazilian Air Force divulged a Request For Information to the following companies and their aircraft: [[Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II Dassault Rafale, Su-35, Gripen NG, and Eurofighter Typhoon.[80] In October 2008, it was reported that Brazilian Air Force had selected three finalists for F-X2; Dassault Rafale, Gripen NG and Boeing F/A-18E/F.[81] On 7 September 2009, during a visit by French President Nicolas Sarkozy, Brazil announced a pact with France and that the nations are in contract negotiations to buy 36 Rafales.[82] The crash of two Rafales in the Mediterranean off Perpignan on 24 September 2009 after a midair collision, comes at a delicate time for the Brazil-France negotiations.[83] On 5 January 2010, media reports stated that the final evaluation report by the Brazilian Air Force placed the Gripen ahead of the other two contenders. The decisive factor was apparently the overall cost of the new fighters, both in terms of unit cost, and operating and maintenance costs.[84][85] Some sources say that Rafale was chosen by the Defense Ministry,[86] but there has been no confirmation on this. In February, 2011, the press announced that the new president of Brazil, Dilma Rousseff, had decided in favor of the American F-18 fighter.[87] On 28 February 2011, the Minister of Finance, Guido Mantega, said the issue would not be resolved in the current year, citing "lack of resources", due to budgetary constraints for the new fiscal year.[88]

In February 2009, French President Nicolas Sarkozy announced that Kuwait was considering buying up to 28 Rafales, but with no firm order then. The same month, France offered Rafales to Oman to replace its ageing fleet of SEPECAT Jaguars.[89] But in 2010, Oman prefers to order the Typhoon.[90]

Weapon complement of the Rafale

The United Arab Emirates Air Force was interested in an upgraded version of the Rafale with more powerful engines and radar, and advanced air to air missiles.[91] They have now started to explore a purchase of the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet[92] or Eurofighter Typhoon.[93] This is reported to be because France's Defense Minister Hervé Morin has asked the UAE to pay 2 billion euros of the total cost to upgrade the Rafale.[94] Deputy Supreme Commander of the UAE Armed Forces, Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan has called the French offer "uncompetitive and unworkable".[95]

Leaked United States State Department cables have said that "French representatives have tried to spin the Rafale's dismal performance in the global market to be the result of U.S. government political pressure rather than the aircraft's shortcomings".[96]

Variants

Rafale B/C and M
Rafale A
A technology demonstrator that first flew in 1986. It has now been retired.
Rafale D
Dassault used this designation (D for "discret" or stealthy) in the early 1990s for Armée de l'Air production versions, to emphasise the new semi-stealthy features they had added to the design.
Rafale B
This is the two-seater version for the Armée de l'Air; delivered to ECE 05.330 in 2004.
Rafale C
This is the single-seat version for the Armée de l'Air; delivered to ECE 05.330 in June 2004.
Rafale M
This is the carrier-borne version for the Aéronavale, which entered service in 2002. The Rafale M weighs about 500 kg (1,100 lb) more than the Rafale C. For carrier operations, the M model has a strengthened airframe and landing gear; longer nose gear leg to provide a more nose-up attitude; deleted front centre pylon due to longer nose gear; larger stinger-type tailhook between the engines; built-in powered boarding ladder; and other unique systems.
Rafale N
The Rafale N, originally called the Rafale BM, was planned to be a two-seater version for the Aéronavale. Budget constraints and the cost of training extra crew members have been cited as the grounds for its cancellation.
Commonality between air force and carrier-borne versions
The Rafale M uses 80% of the same structural design and 95% of the same systems as the Rafale C.[97] to minimize production and maintenance costs, the air force (two-seater) Rafale B is very close to Rafale C.
Unlike many contemporary fighter designs, the length of the two-seat version fuselage is identical to that of the single-seater. The volume required for the location of the second pilot was obtained by reducing the fuselage fuel tank size. As a result, the Rafale B weighs 350 kg more with its internal fuel capacity reduced to 400 liters.[98]

Operators

 France
180 ordered, 93 delivered as of December 2010[19]

Accidents

  • On 6 December 2007, a French Air Force twin-seat Rafale crashed during a training flight. The pilot, who was the only person on board the fighter, was killed in the accident.[99]
  • On 24 September 2009, after unarmed test flights, two French Navy Rafales returning to the Charles de Gaulle, collided in mid-air about 30 kilometers (19 mi) from the town of Perpignan in southwest France. One test pilot, identified as François Duflot, was killed in the accident, while the other was successfully rescued.[100]
  • On 28 November 2010, a Rafale from carrier Charles de Gaulle crashed in the Arabian Sea. This aircraft was supporting Allied operations in Afghanistan. The pilot ejected safely and was recovered by a SAR helicopter from the carrier. Later reports said the engine stopped after being starved of fuel due to confusion by the pilot in switching fuel tanks.[101]

Specifications

Meteor, BVR Air-to-Air Missile
Storm Shadow-Scalp EG, Long-range, cruise air-to-surface missile
GBU-12 Paveway II
AASM-Hammer family of weapons
An AM39 aircraft-launched Exocet
MICA: Short to Medium-Range Air-to-Air Tactical Missile

Data from Dassault Aviation,[102] Superfighters,[103] French Navy,[104]International Directory of Military Aircraft[105]

General characteristics

  • Crew: 1–2Fuel capacity: 4,700 kg (10,400 lb) internal

Performance

  • Thrust/weight: 1.10 (100% fuel, 2 EM A2A missile, 2 IR A2A missile)

Armament

Avionics

See also

Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era

Related lists

References

Notes
  1. ^ Quote: "The core of the enhanced capabilities of the RAFALE lies in a new Modular Data Processing Unit (MDPU). It is composed of up to 18 flight line-replaceable modules, each with a processing power 50 times higher than that of the 2084 XRI type computer fitted on the early versions of Mirage 2000-5."
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  12. ^ Williams 2002, pp. 92–93.
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